Amogh N P
✦ In loving memory of Amogh N P — Architect · Designer · Visionary ✦
A hot-dry desert landscape near Jaisalmer — the extreme of one of India's climatic zones.
Unit IClimatology & Building Physics

Climate & Climatic Zones

Reading the climate you must design for.

≈ 35 min

Climate-responsive design begins with the climate itself. A building in Jaisalmer and one in Mumbai face opposite problems — searing dry heat versus warm, sticky humidity — and the right answer for one is a mistake for the other. This unit learns to read the elements of climate, India's six zones, and the site's own microclimate.

Learning objectives

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to — mapped to the course outcomes for Climatology & Building Physics:

1
CO1 · Understand

List the elements of climate and the factors that modify them.

2
CO1 · Understand

Classify India's climatic zones by their temperature and humidity criteria.

3
CO1 · Analyse

Distinguish macroclimate from a site's microclimate and explain the urban heat island.

4
CO6 · Understand

State the design implications of each climatic zone.

What we design for

The elements of climate

Five elements — solar radiation, temperature, humidity, precipitation and wind — shaped by latitude, altitude, topography, water and vegetation. Weather is the instant; climate is the long-term average.[1]

The elements of climate solar radiation temperature humidity precipitation wind Weather is the instant; climate is the long-term average of these elements.
DiagramThe five elements of climate as icons: sun, thermometer, droplet, rain cloud and wind
What shapes a site's microclimate tree: shade + cooling water: evaporative cool dark paving: stores heat built form: shade + wind A dense, paved core becomes an urban heat island — several °C hotter than the countryside.
DiagramSite factors creating a microclimate: tree shade, water body, dark paving and built form

The five we design for

Solar radiation (heat, light, the driver of shading), air temperature, humidity (which governs evaporative cooling), precipitation, and wind (which drives ventilation). Weather is the instantaneous state; climate is its long-term average (≥30 years).[1, 2]

A large shade tree creating a cool microclimate — site features modify the regional climate.
PhotoA large shade tree creating a cool microclimate — site features modify the regional climate.MaplesyrupSushi · CC BY-SA 4.0 · via Wikimedia Commons
Hot-dry to cold

India's climatic zones

NBC and SP 41 classify India by mean monthly temperature and humidity into hot-dry, warm-humid, composite, moderate and cold — each demanding a different building.[2, 3]

India's climatic zones Hot-Dry (Jaisalmer) Warm-Humid (Mumbai) Composite (Delhi) Moderate (Bangalore) Cold (Leh, Shimla) Indicative — set by mean monthly temperature & humidity (NBC/SP 41).
DiagramA simplified map of India shaded into its climatic zones with a legend

The two hot extremes

Hot-dry (>30 °C, <55% RH — Jaisalmer, Ahmedabad) wants thermal mass, small shaded openings, courtyards and evaporative cooling. Warm-humid (>30 °C, >55% RH — Mumbai, Chennai) wants the opposite: lightweight construction, big shaded openings and maximum cross-ventilation.[2, 3]

ZoneTempHumidityCitiesKey strategy
Hot-Dry> 30 °C< 55%Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, AhmedabadHeavy thermal mass, small shaded openings, courtyards, light colours, evaporative cooling.
Warm-Humid> 30 °C> 55%Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, GoaMaximise cross-ventilation, lightweight construction, large shaded openings, raised floors.
CompositevariesvariesDelhi, Nagpur, LucknowSeasonal hybrid — mass + courtyards for summer, ventilation for monsoon, south sun for winter.
Moderate (Temperate)25–30 °C< 75%Bangalore, PuneThe gentlest — modest shading, good ventilation, little heating or cooling.
Cold< 25 °CvariesShimla, Leh, DarjeelingCompact form, insulation, south glazing for solar gain, minimal exposed surface.
The cold high-altitude desert of Ladakh — a very different Indian climate at the same country.
PhotoThe cold high-altitude desert of Ladakh — a very different Indian climate at the same country.Chris Hunkeler from Carlsbad, California, USA · CC BY-SA 2.0 · via Wikimedia Commons
The contrasts

At a glance

AspectOneThe other
Defining criteriaHot-Dry: >30 °C, <55% RHWarm-Humid: >30 °C, >55% RH
Right responseHot-Dry: mass, small shaded openings, courtyardsWarm-Humid: lightweight, big openings, cross-ventilation
ScaleMacroclimate: regional (zone map)Microclimate: the site itself
Composite zoneNo single zone for ≥6 monthsDesigns adapt season by season
Cold zone problemHeat loss, not heat gainCompact form, insulation, south sun
Vocabulary

Key terms

Climate vs weather

Weather is the instantaneous state; climate is its long-term statistical average (≥30 years).

Climatic zone

A region grouped by similar temperature and humidity for design (NBC/SP 41).

Macroclimate

The regional climate over hundreds of kilometres — what the zone map shows.

Microclimate

The locally modified climate of a specific site, differing from the region.

Urban heat island

An urban core running several °C hotter than its rural surroundings.

Diurnal range

The swing between day-maximum and night-minimum temperature; large in hot-dry/deserts.

Lapse rate

The fall of air temperature with altitude — about 6.5 °C per 1000 m.

Albedo

A surface's reflectivity; high-albedo (light) surfaces stay cooler.

Apply it

Think it through

Name your home town's climatic zone and justify it from its summer temperature and humidity. Then list two features of a local building that respond to that climate — and one that fights it.

Check your understanding

Self-assessment

1. India's climatic zones are classified mainly by —

2. A warm-humid climate (Mumbai, Chennai) is best served by —

3. The urban heat island is mainly caused by —

In a nutshell

Recap

Climate's elements — sun, temperature, humidity, rain, wind — are modified by latitude, altitude, topography, water and vegetation.
India has six climatic zones (NBC/SP 41): hot-dry, warm-humid, composite, moderate and cold (cold-cloudy/cold-sunny), set by temperature and humidity.
Microclimate is the site's own modified climate; the urban heat island makes dense cores hotter.
Each zone demands a different response — mass for hot-dry, ventilation for warm-humid, seasonal mix for composite, insulation for cold.
The evidence

References & further reading

  1. [1]O.H. Koenigsberger et al., Manual of Tropical Housing and Building: Climatic Design. Orient Longman.
  2. [2]SP 41 (S&T):1987 — Handbook on Functional Requirements of Buildings. Bureau of Indian Standards.
  3. [3]National Building Code of India 2016, Part 8 & Part 11. Bureau of Indian Standards.

Further reading

  • O.H. Koenigsberger et al., Manual of Tropical Housing and Building. Orient Longman.
  • B. Givoni, Man, Climate and Architecture. Elsevier.
  • S.V. Szokolay, Introduction to Architectural Science. Routledge.

Sources gathered and fact-checked June 2026. Published values vary by source, sample and method — treat as indicative and confirm against the cited standard before structural use.